Inquisitions in Medieval Viticulture and Winemaking with a Focus on Cistercian Technique.
The use of wine as a popular drink has been around for centuries. From references in the Bible, to Roman records, and later as symbol in Christianity it is an ever present desire of men. The importance Christianity had when promoting viticulture and wine making influenced the Cistercians to master the art during the Middle Ages. Their acquisition of vineyards in Burgundy paved the way for new techniques and a higher standard of vine growing and wine making. With the cutting edge dominance in viticulture and oenological imperialism they were allowed to experiment and establish a monoculture of Pinot Noir grapes. Evidence of the higher level of quality their monoculture of Pinot Noir produced is expressed in profitability, government and religious support, and laws past protecting it.
It is very possible that after the fall of the Roman Empire viticulture found new life and endurance due to the relationship between Christianity and wine. With the establishment of the new covenant wine came to symbolize the blood of Christ. In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Christ is quoted as saying, “Drink from it all of you. This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you, I will not drink of this fruit of the vine, from now until that day when I drink it anew with you in my father’s Kingdom” (VI: 26-29). This relationship is argued to be the main cause of the very survival of viticulture. “If an early identification with religion promoted viticulture in the ancient world, viticulture’s very survival depended on its religious associations during the centuries that followed the fall of the Roman Empire” (Unwin 134).
Throughout the centuries images of the last supper, where Christ offers wine to the disciples, can be seen in paintings, engravings, drawings, and almost all other forms of religious art. At the end of the Middle Ages a new image appeared throughout Europe. In artwork people displayed Christ in a winepress. In “Le Pressoir de Nostre Sauvur Jesus Christ,” image 1, French winemakers are pressing Christ and barreling the blood of the new covenant. This image supports the close correspondence between wine, winemaking, and Christianity. These images can be seen on many stained glass windows throughout many wine producing areas of France and Germany. In a “Calendar Page for January,” image 2, circa 1353 France, it shows St. Paul, prophets, and saints with grape vines surrounding them. One person looks to be actually climbing or pruning the vines. This is another example of the close relationship between Christianity and wine. “In 1336 Petrarch said that the popes were lingering at Avignon because the cardinals were loath to return to Rome on account of the fact that there was no ‘Beaune’ in Italy and they could not be happy without this beverage, adding that: ‘They look upon wine as a second element and as the nectar of the gods’” (Hatch 230).
By the 11th century vines were being cultivated throughout most of Europe. From warm temperate areas, such as in Italy, to colder areas of Burgundy and northern France, people established vineyards. Tim Unwin comments, “the symbolic drinking of wine as part of the Christian Eucharist, Mass or Communion, was to play a fundamental role in influencing the global distribution of viticulture, and the social and ideological significance of wine, but wine and the vine are also found in three other main aspects of Christian symbolism” (Unwin 139). They are the comparison with Jews as a vineyard, Christ as a vineyard, and the use of wine in aspects of Catholic priesthood.
Between the 11th and 14th centuries Europe experienced significant population growth. Urban centers rapidly expanded as people moved into them. As the population grew the merchant class expanded to facilitate the growing demand and market for luxury items in cities like London, Paris, and Venice. The desire for wine, especially quality wine, by the upper-class, caused an increase in vineyards and production of wine in many rural areas. In the 10th and 11th centuries French landowners cleared forested lands and drained marshes to create new vineyards and facilitate this demand (see esp. Berman Ch. 2). The growth of towns and new economy within them led to the creation of large commercially owned vineyards. The Bordeaux region of France entered and became a key player in wine production at the beginning of the 13th century. The climate and topography of Bordeaux provided excellent conditions for growing a selection of both red and white grape varietals.
The expansion of productive viticulture to parts of France, with a focus on northern France, is discussed by Tim Unwin, he says, “Three main images are to be found in literature concerning viticulture and the wine trade during the medieval period. The first is the contrast that is widely thought to have existed between the Mediterranean and northern viticulture, with the former being seen as largely subsistence based and the latter as being directed much more towards export trade and commercial profit” (Unwin 166). He discusses that the second image is that the structure and organization of trade tends to exclude others. A good example of this, which I will discuss in depth later, is the hindrance Rhine River wines, by Burgundian dominance, had when trying to compete in French markets. The third, that viticulture during the Middle Ages experienced little technical growth, is correct, with an exception to the anomaly that existed in Burgundy.
Starting in the 8th and 9th century, Burgundy and elsewhere in France saw an expansion of monastic orders. The Cistercian order, taking there name from their abbey at Citeaux, was founded in 1098 by Benedictine monks. It was founded “on the principles of separation from society and close adherence to the original tenets of Benedictine rule” (Constance, Brittain, Bouchard, I). Their relationship and knowledge of God was defined though their self imposed “poverty, manual labor, silence and obedience, and intellectual learning and contemplation” (Constance, Brittain, Bouchard, I).
The Cistercians acquired lands in Burgundy though a number of different enterprises. First, many of the lands were presented as gifts from local knights, the church, and the upper class. Second, though careful research the Cistercians purchased lands that would provide them with an economic return. Third, there was a small amount of land that was acquired through exchange or barter (see esp. Berman Britain Bouchard 31-95).
The transfer of land, as a gift, was very common by knights during the time of the crusades. In fear of leaving Europe, with the possibility of death, a knight would give lands to the church or specific monastic orders in exchange for their prayers. Belief, by the knights, that these prayers would aid them in their safe return or salvation in the afterlife. The elite members of society would also give gifts of land, whether vineyard or not, in return for the prays of the monks, aimed either at themselves or loved ones, alive or deceased. “Over half of the men and women involved in the transactions with the Cistercians can be said to be from the society’s elite. This includes 8 percent from the very upper levels of that elite (i.e., kings, dukes, counts, viscounts); 7 percent churchmen; 22 percent castellans and powerful lords; and 26 percent knights” (Constance, Brittain, Bouchard 165). Gifts of vines and vineyards where made to most houses in the Cistercian order during the Middle Ages (see Berman 92).
Though research, Cistercian monks carefully purchased lands that were suitable for vineyards or other agricultural purpose. “Nothing in the original Cistercian legislation forbade purchases, and in certain situations the monks found purchase a highly desirable type of transaction” (Constance, Brittain, Bouchard 56). An advantage to this strategy was that monks got the land they desired at the time they purchased it and did not have to wait for a donation. It was common for vineyards to be purchased because they require specific growing areas that are affected by topography, soil chemistry, and the direction a hillside might face. Purchasing the land for vineyards allowed them to choose the best location; locations that might not have been offered as gifts. “Since the order lacked such sources of cash as borrowing, or pilgrim trade, and received few enormous bequests, it may be concluded that from very early in its history the cash for land purchases was internally-generated” (Berman 40). Money, used to purchase land for use as new vineyards, would have been generated by the revenue of existing vineyards.
“An increasingly common transaction after about 1150 was the pawn, in which the monks advanced a layman a lump sum of money in return for a piece of property” (Constance, Brittain, Bouchard 33). The owner could return the money to the monks in a lump sum or at arranged intervals of time. It is very unlikely that monks sought interest for this loan because it conflicted with Catholic doctrine. Collecting interest on a loan was believed to be the same as selling time, which was a sin. After gifts, leasing became the second most common method of receiving lands. Cistercians would pay the owner a specific amount of money, for a specific period time, and for a specific piece of land. At times, Cistercians would lease land that was not in use for agriculture to peasants for an annual fee. Monks would also at times exchange lands that were not especially useful for lands that were desirable.With newly acquired lands, the Cistercians in Burgundy were able to expand their vineyards throughout the region. They had come to own some of the most prestigious vineyards, that to this day, are known for some of the best wines available in the world. Their careful research and knowledge of viticulture had helped them make exceptional choices when choosing these locations. It was not the land alone that guaranteed such quality, but the revolutions in the technique of growing grapes and making wine, founded by the Cistercians and which will be discussed later in greater detail.
By 1275, the Benedictine abbey of Cluny, had come in possession of all the vineyards around Gevrey, located roughly 10 km south-west of Dijon. In 1232, another abbey, Saint Vivant at Vosne, came to own the vineyard of Romanee-Conti, La Romanee, La Tache, Richebourg, and Romanee-Saint-Vivant. (See esp. Unwin 178) In the years between 1110 and 1336 the Cistercian abbey of Citeaux acquired lands in and around Vougeot. They eventually owned many vineyards in the vicinity creating the largest single vineyard in Burgundy, the Clos de Vougeot. The vineyard, located roughly 20km south-west of Dijon, eventually had a wall built surrounding it.
Until the 13th century white grape varieties played the dominant role in Burgundy. Characteristically, white grapes are more resilient to the moisture and cold weather found in Burgundy. They have a shorter maturation period which corresponds to a shorter growing season. The environmental issues facing wine producers in Burgundy made it much more difficult when selecting a variety and maintaining the vines year after year. Growers continually experimented with varieties that were very successful in Italy but failed in Burgundy.
The Cistercians established a monoculture of the Pinot Noir grape in Burgundy between the 13th and 14th centuries. Pinot Noir would come to dominate the region and the Cistercian’s wine would soon be known as one of Europe’s most prized. Pinot Noir is not an easy grape to grow, it “demands much of both the vine-grower and wine-maker” (Robinson 736).Only with care and maintenance, with the hope of a good growing season, can it become a profitable use vineyards; especially during the Middle Ages. Its inconsistency is why many wine producers, both during the Middle Ages and today, tend to choose an alternative grape variety.
During the Middle Ages vine cultivation and wine making was treated like normal agriculture and food processing. The Cistercians employed many new revolutionary techniques aimed at vine cultivation and making wine. They researched the relationship between soil, climate, and plant. They experimented with soil preparation, vine cultivation, training, pruning, and grafting. They also displayed a lot of effort to master the actual process of making wine. Through experimentation, with failure and success, their product grew to revolutionary new heights of quality and eventually notoriety. With the use of period art work it is clear to see what the Cistercians were doing correctly, what others were doing wrong, and what the normal practices of vine cultivation were before the Cistercians.
The Cistercians used methods including training vines on trellises, on poles, and up trees. At the abbey of Muri, they established a system which included, “you manured; pruned; hoed over once before Easter; tied up the shoots; hoed again before Midsummer; layered some of the shoots; and to help the grapes to ripen you removed any leaves that covered the clusters” (Postan 170). The hoeing allowed water to seep in deeper and hit the root systems providing the plants with essential nutrients. The act of tying up the shoots and layering them is a method of training the vines to grow in the most efficient way. If vines were allowed to grow freely they naturally would grow up and towards the sun. By training along trellises it allows more surface area in the vine to be in direct contact with the sun. Direct contact encourages, spread over a larger area, rapid and increased leaf growth leading to a better supply of energy provided for fruit production.
Image 3 shows exactly what sort of training the Cistercians would have used. Grapes are trained around poles, up trees, and even through knots in trees. Foliage is not blocking any of the grape clusters allowing them to have unimpeded exposure to the sun. Image 4 gives another example of these techniques. In this 14th century French tapestry depicting a harvest in Burgundy, grapes are growing on stakes and trellises. Though the people depicted do not appear to be monks, they could be peasants or other skilled workers working for the monks. If not, it is a good example of how Cistercian techniques expanded in popularity. Image 5, in which the location in France is unspecified, again gives a good example of how the spread of advanced training techniques occurred. Vines are being trained up poles and then horizontally along a center shaft.
New techniques didn’t spread everywhere in France even by the early 15th century. In “Tres Riches du Duc de Berry,” in the month of September, at the Chateau de Saumur, image 6, people are harvesting grapes off low lying shrub like plants. This was a very common scene, inferior forms of viticulture where practiced before and after the Cistercians. Growing plants in low lying groups is inefficient and can present many problems such as moisture damage, pest damage, and a lack of sunlight for the leaves and later for the fruit. These problems lead to smaller harvests and then mediocre wine. In the March image, image 7, in the same book of hours, again we can see vines that are forced to grow on the ground. The vines have also been pruned back to a thick trunk, about two feet high, with no appearance of new spring time shoots. These types of growing techniques are an excellent contrast against the Cistercian’s methods.
After harvesting the grapes the Cistercians brought experience and know-how to the process of turning the grapes into wine. They used a system of hierarchy in which the best hand selected grapes would make their best wines and lesser quality grapes would be used for common or table wine. Traditionally, making exceptional wines and the income received allowed them to own numerous elaborate wine presses. Screw driven presses extract all the juices from the grape, including the juices in the skins, “while red wine could easily be made by being trodden, it was still necessary to press the skins to extract the remaining juice” (Unwin 172).
Many peasants and others whom could not afford a wine press did use methods of squeezing the juices out of the grape with their feet. At times they would pay a noble or monastery, usually in wine, for the use of a screw press. In “Les Vendages,” image 8, it shows a harvest in Burgundy. People, whom appear to be peasants, are extracting the wine by both methods: by foot and by screw press. A couple walking through the scene appears to be from the upper class. The man is the lord and is observing the use of his wine press.
After the juices were extracted, the Cistercians monks used experience and patience to ferment it and turn it into wine. Their understanding of the consumer’s palates enabled them to continually produce superior wines. “In the years of bad weather the must from some of the north-western European vine-yards tends to be low in sugar and sugar is added (by law) to bring up the ultimate alcohol content of the wine” (Younger 259). The Cistercians were masters of the correct application of this; they got it right. Medieval wines were sometimes unstable and honey, water, eggs, and pine-kernels were used for taste and clarification. Though these applications were used by many wine makers it is hardly mentioned during the wine making process of the Cistercians. They did not require additives to correct their Pinot Noir. See image 9 for a 13th century monk testing wine. They also invented the notion of “CRU,” in which they identified different areas of the vineyard with producing different qualities and tastes of wine consistently from year to year.
There is other evidence of the superiority of Cistercian made wine. “So reputable did the Cistercian’s wine become that the order was granted not only land but also extensive privileges” (Philips 96). In 1171, Pope Alexander, waived the order from paying any church tax on their vineyards. Later he would threaten to excommunicate anyone whom challenged the decree. “Also in 1171, King Louis VII of France freed the Cistercians from paying any of the duties that would normally be levied on the transportation and sale of their produce” (Philips 96). After the end of the Middle Ages, Holt comments, “by the fifteenth century the ultimate gift to present to kings and princes was a barrel of this fine wine, which many believed had no equal anywhere in Europe” (Holt 73). As monks left their Burgundy home to form the Kloster Eberbach, in the Rhine area, they brought vines from Burgundy to grow there. They had little success and resorted to growing white grape varieties. The elite members of society favored Burgundian wine so much that they barred other wines from making it to the markets in Paris and other commercial centers, “at the Burgundian and Languedoc frontiers vinegrowing communities, powerfully supported by their princes, jealously barred the passage of southern wines” (Duby 139).
In the 13th century the wines of Beaune became highly desired. This demand, by consumers in Paris, made the two week voyage profitable. The wines had to be moved over land until hitting the river Yonne, and then floated to the capital. The dukes of Burgundy worked to promote these wines whose expansion could have been greater if not for the obstacles in correlation with the network of rivers (see esp. Duby 137-41).
Other than the revolutionary new techniques in viticulture practiced by the Cistercians, there were other reasons that affected the monoculture in Burgundy. First, there was an urban resurgence; towns grew larger and the population continued to grow in Burgundy and northern France. People started to demand luxury items to enhance their lives. Second, these demands facilitated “the elevation of wine to a prominent position as a symbol of social status among the burgesses of these towns and cities” (Unwin 175). To aid in desire of wine, three forces helped to expand vineyards. The nobility purchased the wine, the church profited and purchased the wine, and the monasteries profited from the sales. The sale of the Cistercian’s wine depended on their ability to deliver high quality Pinot Noir.
As evidence, it is important to look at the implications the Black Death had on Burgundy. The production of wine decreased as the Bubonic Plague killed off as much as a third of Europe between 1348 and 1400. The market and demand for wine also suffered significant loses. Due to the effects of the plague, skilled workers became minimal, and the maintenance of vineyards in Burgundy fell short of what was required to maintain them. This resulted in eroded and overgrown vineyards.
At this point use of the Gamay grape becomes more popular. Though grown in small amounts, among the well established monoculture of Pinot Noir, it now makes an even bigger appearance in Burgundy. The Gamay grape, most commonly known today as Beaujolais, had many advantages over Pinot Noir. “Gamay vines were easier to cultivate than the notoriously sensitive Pinot Noir; the Gamay grapes ripened more quickly, so that they were at risk from frost or other climatic adversity for a shorter time; and they had a much higher yield- Gamay yield was between two and four times that of Pinot Noir vines in the fourteenth century” (Philips 98).
“The introduction of Gamay to the vineyards of the COTE D’OR in the late 14th century was viewed as scandalous by those whose livelihood did not personally depend on rearing productive vines, and great efforts were made to retain Pinot Noir at the expense of the less noble newcomer” (Robinson 421). People, especially the aristocracy, were used to the quality and stature that a monoculture of Pinot Noir provided. The invasion of the Gamay grape caused action by some to protect this monoculture.
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and the first of the Valois Dynasty which ruled from 1363 through 1477, opposed the introduction of the Gamay grape. His marriage, seen in image 10, was to Margaret, granddaughter of the countess Margaret of Flanders, with whom Philip signed a treaty with and essentially inherited the duchy from (see esp. Vaughan 154). “On 31 July 1395, he declared war on a very different sort of enemy, the Gamay grape, ‘a very bad and very disloyal plant,’ he declared, which ‘is very harmful to human beings’” (Berlow 426). His argument was that buyers whom came to Burgundy in search for the incredible quality that the area had become known for due to the Cistercians were no longer coming. The Gamay grape was producing substandard wine and merchants were adding water to the wine to overcome the bitterness that the variety was known for. He ordered that all vines be cut down within a month and uprooted by the following Easter. Failure to abide by this decree would have landed any person in jail; as such was the case with the mayor of Dijon whom opposed the decree on the bases that it violated winegrowers’ liberties (see esp. Berlow 427).
Though most of his blame, for the decline in sales and quality of wine, lied on the Gamay plant it is important to stress other factors which contributed to that decline. As mentioned earlier, the Black Death, was the largest contributor. People grew Gamay because it was easier. The common vine grower might have not employed the techniques and skill as the Cistercians did while growing Pinot Noir. The Cistercians integrated Gamay for the same reason; it was less labor intensive in an environment where workers were at a minimal.
“Despite the extension of the use of Gamay, overall wine production on the estates of the duke in the area of Beaune declined in the years between 1371 and 1394 to only three-fourths of its mid-century level. Administrative and managerial changes can explain this decline to some extent, but the catastrophes which had intervened were probably more significant. Plague returned to Burgundy around 1360 with results even more traumatic
than in 1348” (Berlow 431).
It is important to note that consumers desired the quality of Pinot Noir wine set forth by the Cistercians. They didn’t desire Gamay, but unfortunately, the plague and its effects, and the ease of growing it by unskilled growers, disrupted the monoculture that was possible because of Cistercian technique. Philip the Bold was wise to see that the strengths of Burgundy’s wine trade, laid in maintaining the traditional monoculture.
With early connections in Christianity to the overall desire for wine as a luxury item, wine during the Middle Ages grew immensely in popularity. The Cistercians’ ideals allowed them to revolutionize how people grew vines and made wine. Their ideas spread all over Burgundy and Western Europe. The quality of wine they produced under a monoculture of Pinot Noir gained respect and was highly desired. Evidence of this notoriety can be seen in the momentum they expanded vineyards, privileges allowed to them, and laws past to protect the monoculture they established.